Assistive Technology: Supporting Children with Disabilities to Develop Literacy and Numeracy

This post I am focussing on Assistive Technology (AT) and the role it plays in supporting children with disabilities or learning difficulties, to develop and progress literacy and numeracy skills. I had three key readings this week:

1. Parette, H. P. & Stoner, J. B. (2008). Benefits of assistive technology user groups for early childhood education professionals. Early Childhood Education Journal, 35, 313-319.

2. Parr, M. (2012). The future of text-to-speech technology: How long before it’s just one more thing we do when teaching reading? Social and Behaviour Sciences, 69, 1420-1429.

3. Räsänen, P., Salminen, J., Wilson, A. J., Aunio, P., & Dehaene, S. (2009). Computer-assisted intervention for children with low numeracy skills. Cognitive Development, 24, 450-472.

I also came across an article from earlier this year (2013) called “Seven Myths about Young Children and Technology” by L. Plowman and J. McPake. The article talks about seven common myths around children and technology, including the thought around technology hindering social interaction and technology dominating children’s lives, and then further on suggests what it means then for us as educators. I have created the title as a link, if you have time I recommend you check it out.

According to Parette and Stoner (2008), AT is a fairly broad term used to describe any item, piece of equipment, or product system that can be used in a manner for the purpose of maintaining or improving the functional abilities of a child with a disability. It is clear to me that AT is a crucial tool in meeting the educational and overall developmental needs of learners with difficulties throughout their education. AT devices can be electronic or non-electronic. Three main types of AT, ranging from “low” to “high” technology, can be used.

Low technology.

Low technology strategies do not involve any type of electronic or battery-operated device. These strategies typically include low-cost and easy-to-use equipment, such as dry-erase boards, clipboards, laminated photographs, photo albums, three-ring binders, PECS, etc. The strategies can be used to enhance expressive and receptive communication skills, especially for children with autism.

 

Images: http://www.pecsaustralia.com/index.php

Mid technology.

These strategies use battery-operated devices or basic electronic devices. Examples of mid technology are voice output devices, timers, and calculators. They are primarily used as a means to support expressive communication and enhance classroom participation, focus attention on various skill areas, and assist in the development of social skills.

Google Images: https://www.google.com.au/search?q=computer+assistive+technology   

High technology.

High technology strategies are complex technological support strategies. They typically involve high-cost equipment, such as computers and adaptive hardware (touch window, software, and trackballs), accessory equipment (digital cameras and scanners), video cameras, and complex voice output devices.

Google Images: https://www.google.com.au/search?q=computer+assistive+technology   

The idea of having technological machines facilitate learning or even carry out instruction is far from a new one.  According to Räsänen et al (2009), the first patents for technology based educational tools in mathematics were accepted already in the 1800s, but without doubt there have been many ancestral assistive technologies for learning and doing calculations using finger systems, pebbles, tallies and abacuses from the beginning of numerical human life!

According to Parette and Stoner (2008), one of the great benefits of introducing AT in early childhood settings is the immediate impact on children’s learning and development around literacy and numeracy. A key influencer is through the impact AT has on children’s attending behaviours. Attending is a prerequisite skill for most learning that occurs in early childhood education settings; not attending leads to children missing out on vital information and cues for developing literacy and numeracy skills. Parette and Stoner (2008) mention how teachers discovered immediately that use of large screen projection of activities resulted in an increase in attending behaviours. They stated that “once children’s attention was focused on the large screen, relevant content could be presented to teach or expand targeted literacy skills” (p.316).

Parette and Stoner (2008) also discusses about AT supporting young children with challenging behaviours, to encourage the development of literacy and numeracy skills, through a range of visual strategies. Such strategies include choice charts, first/then boards, routine activity sequences, cue cards, turn-taking charts, reminder charts, and feeling charts. Use of visual schedules have resulted in children adhering to classroom rules, following sequences in tasks, and demonstrating appropriate social behaviours across contexts, all of which play key roles in be a literate and numerate participant in society.

One of the readings I looked at this week was in regards to text-to-speech technology (Parr, 2012). Text-to-speech technology (TTST) is a form of assistive technology, where its primary purpose as a reading intervention is to support students who struggle to read or have an identified reading disorder. TTST transforms print texts of any format (book, magazine, newspaper, website) into text that is read aloud by a computer synthesized voice. TTST simply decodes, thus reducing the attentional demands required of readers to solve the sounds of individual letters, store this information, put it together into words, sentences, and then finally comprehend. TTST may assist or augment task performance in some reading tasks, whereas in others they are used to compensate for, circumvent, or bypass reading deficits (e.g., phonemic and phonic awareness). TTST continues to be viewed as an intervention for a select few, not as a comprehensive reading strategy to be offered to all.

According to Parr (2012), given the range of instructional reading supports already in place in our classrooms, and the rapid pace of technological advancement and the availability of TTST on cell phones, iPads, computers, built into free e-readers, it is now, more than ever, critical to investigate the possibilities offered by new technologies such as TTST. The use of TTST in the classroom is no different than reading aloud or reading collaboratively, both of which are offered as levels of support in a comprehensive reading approach. With TTST, students must follow along, listen carefully, and bring all of their reading strategies to the experience in order to read the text with appropriate expression and intonation, ultimately allowing them to make meaning. While not doing the reading work for students, TTST can facilitate and extend reading strategies and processes in the classroom; for example, word solving, expression, fluency, response, etc.

It is essential that there is careful training implemented for us educators and our students on the use of AT, in order to ensure that it is used correctly. I also believe AT should be incorporated into every aspect of daily living in order to improve the functional capabilities of children with difficulties or disabilities. Thus, it is important to consider that all AT devices, from “low” technology to “high” technology, always be individualized to meet the unique needs of any child. Most important, the optimal goal of AT strategies is to increase the child’s independent functioning skills by decreasing the amount of direct support needed from another person.

This may not be relevant to my posts topic of technology, however, I wanted to share this list of principles around reading intervention, which Parr (2012, p.1422) collaborated from a variety of sources.

Successful reading interventions recognize that:

- The success of intervention is dependent on an effective classroom program;

- Literacy learners need to understand the purposes of literacy;

- Reading for meaning should be at the heart of reading instruction;

- Intervention should be frequent, regular, and of significant duration to make a difference;

- Intervention should not be delivered from a one-size-fits-all perspective, but should instead be individualized;

- The student-teacher ratio should be kept small – student groupings are flexible and responsive to student need;

- Flexibility and fluency in reading are major goals;

- Independent and strategic problem-solving using a range of cueing systems is a major goal;

- Scaffolding during book introductions sets students up for success in independent reading;

- Texts must be matched to student level and interest;

- Word learning activities (making and breaking words; phonemic awareness, phonics) help readers to become familiar with how print functions.

- Writing words is a natural extension of reading words and aids in the word identification process;

- Learners need frequent opportunities to read and write in meaningful and authentic contexts;

- Learners need to build confidence and come to see themselves as readers and writers;

- Assessment is meaningful, practical, efficient, ongoing, and connected to instructional goals;

- Cooperation and collaboration between home and school enhances success and reduces failure;

- Teachers are aware of a range of instructional activities and can select and sequence activities appropriately;

- Teacher training is meaningful, practical, and ongoing;

- Teachers believe in the ability of each learner to read successfully.

      Reference:

      Parette, H. P. & Stoner, J. B. (2008). Benefits of assistive technology user groups for early childhood education professionals. Early Childhood Education Journal, 35, 313-319.

      Parr, M. (2012). The future of text-to-speech technology: How long before it’s just one more thing we do when teaching reading? Social and Behaviour Sciences, 69, 1420-1429.

      Räsänen, P., Salminen, J., Wilson, A. J., Aunio, P., & Dehaene, S. (2009). Computer-assisted intervention for children with low numeracy skills. Cognitive Development, 24, 450-472.

A Technology-Enhanced Learning Environment

Throughout my next couple posts I will be focusing around the role technology plays in the development of literacy and numeracy in children from birth to four-years old. Technology includes: computer, internet, iPads, music, graphic illustrations, ebooks, etc; with features such as animation, music, surprise elements, and especially consistent interaction, gaining and maintaining childrens’ interest.  According to Sarama (2004), when implementing technology into literacy and numeracy development, it is important to not only rely on technology alone, but integrate multiple types of media: including, computers, manipulatives (and everyday objects), and print.

The two key readings for this post include:

1. Dreyer, C., & Nel, C. (2003). Teaching reading strategies and reading comprehension within a technology-enhanced learning environment. System, 31, 349–365.
2. Sarama, J. (2004). Technology in early childhood mathematics: Building Blocks^TM as an innovative technology-based curriculum. In D. H. Clements, J. Sarama & A. M. DiBiase (Eds.), Engaging young children in mathematics: Standards for early childhood mathematics education (pp. 361-375). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

A technology-enhanced environment accommodates the learning style preferences of all students, providing a visual learning style (Dreyer & Nel, 2003). Dreyer and Nel (2003) mention several studies conducted with first-year students, which indicate that the at-risk students tend to have visual learning styles which are rarely accommodated in education settings. The flexibility of multiple technologies allows the creation of a vision not limited by traditional materials and pedagogical approached. According to Dreyer and Nel (2003), computer-based communication can allow representations and actions not possible with other media; for example, blocks can be actually glued together, trucks can leave paths in the sand, and these paths can be changed, moved, saved and used later with other vehicles. However, it is critical for multimedia and other computer capabilities to be used when they serve educational purposes; technology can aid learning if designed to be consistent with and supporting the pedagogical goals. 

   

Image: Google images- https://www.google.com.au/search?q=literacy+technology

The reading from Sarama (2004), is based on a program called Building Blocks. Building Blocks is a new Pre-K to Grade 2, software-enhanced, mathematics program designed to comprehensively address the principles and standards for mathematics. It is designed to enable all young children to build solid content knowledge and develop higher-order or critical thinking. The demographics of the early end of the age range imply that materials should be designed for home, day care, and classroom environments, and for children from a variety of backgrounds, interests, and ability levels. Building Blocks is structured on empirically based learning trajectories through the big ideas and skill areas of mathematics. It involves a nine-step design process model: drafting curriculum goals, building explicit model of children’s knowledge and learning in the goal domain, creating an initial design, investigating components of the software design, assessing prototypes and curriculum, conducting pilot tests, conducting field tests in numerous classrooms, and publishing materials.

The idea of Building Blocks is for educators to find mathematics in, and developing mathematics from, children’s activity (Sarama, 2004). The materials are designed to help children extend and mathematise their everyday activities, from building blocks, to art, songs, stories, puzzles, etc. The activities are based on childrens experiences and interests, with emphasis on supporting the development of mathematical activity. Building Blocks materials not only ensure that the actions and objects mirror concepts and procedures, but also that they are embedded in tasks and developmentally appropriate settings (Sarama, 2004).

Although the basic question of whether computers are developmentally appropriate for young children at all is still debated as research is clear that, when used wisely, computer use can be meaningful, motivating, and beneficial for children 3 years of age and above (Sarama, 2004). Not all uses of computers are valuable and educators must work hard to integrate technology effectively. According to Sarama (2004), hundreds of products are now available for young children that include mathematics, however, most of these products fall into one of three categories: 1. drill programs, which can be effective at their intended purpose, providing practice, but they do not develop conceptual knowledge; 2. “edutainment”, which often limit mathematics content and pedagogy; and 3. exploratory environments, which provide potential for mathematical investigations, but unfortunately young children usually explore them only on the surface level. For both the second and third categories, there is little learning by children or educators, but with the programs which have focused goals and coherent pedagogy; young children can develop both concepts and skills.

Image: Building Blocks- http://gse.buffalo.edu/org/buildingblocks/index_2.htm 

I, myself, perceive technology as an effective learning tool, however, some early childhood educators may argue that young children benefit much more from tactile experience of interacting with concrete manipulates. I believe computers encourage students to make their knowledge explicit, which helps them build integrated-concrete knowledge. Sarama (2004) mentions the specific theoretically and empirically grounded advantages of using computer manipulatives; including, “providing a manageable, clean manipulative offering flexibility; changing arrangement or representation; storing and later retrieving configurations; recording and replaying students’ actions; linking the concrete and the symbolic to the general; encouraging problem posing and conjecturing; scaffolding problem solving; focusing attention and increasing motivation; and encouraging and facilitation complete, precise explanations” (p. 365).

Like most education tools we implement, guidance by the educator is essential for effective integration of technology. As educators we must introduce, monitor, and mediate children’s interactions with computer programs. The Building Blocks (Sarama, 2004) program integrates technology activities with off-computer activities, and helps the educator provide such mediation by providing pedagogical guidance for both off- and on-computer activities in the educators’ materials. It is easy to overlook the power of technological strategies. Research-based computer tools stand at the base, providing computer analogy to critical mathematical ideas and processes. Technology can be more motivating for children, but also comprehensive in that it includes exploratory environments that include specific tasks and guidance, building concepts and well-managed practice building skills, a full set of critical curriculum components, and a full range of mathematical activities.

On a final thought, I strongly believe that as educators we must actively seek and share any practices that will help our children identify the obstacles that restrict their possibilities in their development and equip all of the unique learners who fill our education settings with the knowledge and strategies to take action toward transforming that which limits them.

References:

Dreyer, C., & Nel, C. (2003). Teaching reading strategies and reading comprehension within a technology-enhanced learning environment. System, 31, 349–365.

Sarama, J. (2004). Technology in early childhood mathematics: Building Blocks^TM as an innovative technology-based curriculum. In D. H. Clements, J. Sarama & A. M. DiBiase (Eds.), Engaging young children in mathematics: Standards for early childhood mathematics education (pp. 361-375). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Literacy and Numeracy: Students with Learning Difficulties

This post focuses on the development of literacy and numeracy in children with learning difficulties. The two key readings I have used are:

1. Klein, M. D., Cook, R. E., & Richardson-Gibbs, A. M. (2001). Strategies for Including Children with Special Needs in Early Childhood Settings: Adapting Daily Activities in Inclusive Early Childhood Settings. Delmar: Albany, NY.

2. Gersten, R., Jordan, N. C., & Flojo, J. R. (2005). Early Identification and Interventions for Students with Mathematics Difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(4), p. 293-304.

As children grow and develop in such literate and numerate societies, developing adequate reading skills is vital to their contribution and success within their community, and lifelong achievement. Some of the statistics around reading are rather dramatic. Hoff (2009, pg. 354) explains how children are more likely to drop out of school due to their lack of reading ability, with “only 4 percent of children with serious reading difficulties finish school.” Mathematics learning grows naturally from experience, strengthening children’s curiosity and enthusiasm; however, for children with learning difficulties, entering into the initial experience is not all that straight forward. According to Gersten, Jordan, and Flojo (2005) children who exhibit mathematics difficulties include those performing in the low and well below average range (at or below the 35^th percentile).

According to Chall’s stages of reading development as mentioned in Klein, Cook and Richardson-Gibbs (2001), typical developing children from birth to age 6 are at the pre-reading stage, stage 0. Throughout this stage the learner “pretends” to read, following adult role-models. They tend to rely heavily on pictures for understanding the story context. They can retell a story with some accuracy after listening to it being read. They can name most letters of the alphabet, along with some words/signs from environmental print. Being able to identify then write their name are typical first steps. Meanwhile, children are also developing knowledge around equity, numbers, patterns, problem solving, measurement, etc, through mathematical principles, and building effective numeracy skills.

Some children face specific challenges in the development of literacy, however, it is highly important for us as Early Childhood Educators that we do not simply assume that if a child cannot talk, they cannot learn to read. According to Klein, Cook and Richardson-Gibbs (2001), development of early literacy skills can provide important advantages for children with special needs, such as, providing support for communication. As educators there are many strategies and adaptations we can implement to ensure each child is given the best opportunity to develop. In promoting literacy and numeracy development in children with learning difficulties, many highly motivating strategies can be used throughout each activity of the day (Klein, Cook & Richardson-Gibbs, 2001). Pictures and print can benefit literacy development, supporting expressive language in children who are nonverbal, strengthening children’s language comprehension and memory,  and reducing behaviour problems through building children’s understanding of daily events; all of which impact of a child’s numeracy development also.  Gersten, Jordan and Flojo (2005) mention using strategies based around whole-class activities to encourage development in students with mathematics difficulties; such as practice in counting on, practice in listening to coins being dropped in a box and counting, practise in counting backwards, practice in linking adding and subtracting to the manipulation of objects, etc. These activities could also be done in small groups of children, and could help us as educators in building a sense of the number of students who need further progress in this area.

A final point, that I believe is essential to remember, from McQuiston, O’Shea and McCollin (2008), states that “students who have failed to read well are capable of learning to read when teachers offer them sufficient time and intensity for interventions, and appropriate instructional practices.” This is an important message for myself and any educator as it is our role to give children the best opportunity to become literate and numerate, even if they lack the skills or are delayed in their development. Early identification and intervention are critical when it comes to ensuring students are given the best opportunities to become independent and successful readers. One of my own key goals of instruction and intervention in early childhood is to minimise the number of children who develop later reading problems by maximising the number who enter kindy and school with sufficient phonological skills to benefit from formal reading instruction.

Finally, we need to be aware that all children sit at numerous points along the continuum, with different abilities, at different stages of development- we need to teach them according to where they sit, to suit their abilities, and to encourage them to progress to the next stage of development.

References:

Gersten, R., Jordan, N. C., & Flojo, J. R. (2005). Early Identification and Interventions for Students with Mathematics Difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(4), p. 293-304.

Hoff, E. (2009). Language Development. Wadsworth, USA: Cengage Learning.

Klein, M. D., Cook, R. E., & Richardson-Gibbs, A. M. (2001). Strategies for Including Children with Special Needs in Early Childhood Settings: Adapting Daily Activities in Inclusive Early Childhood Settings. Delmar: Albany, NY.

McQuiston, K., O’Shea, D., & McCollin, M. (2008). Improving phonological awareness and decoding skills of high school students from diverse backgrounds. Preventing School Failure, 52(2), 67-70.